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Lesson 7 · Social psychology

Race, Myth and Medicine

How did false ideas about people of color get written into science, and why do some of them still shape medicine, mental health care and the way people see each other? This lesson follows the myths from early anthropology to today's clinics and classrooms, using the research and the books that exposed them.

Before you begin. This lesson describes real experiments and abuses, mostly against Black, Latino, Native and incarcerated people. The descriptions are factual and not graphic. Take breaks, and talk with someone you trust if it brings up something heavy.

Builds on Lesson 6. In Nature and Nurture you saw racism "weather" the body. This lesson asks where the myths behind that racism came from, and why biology was blamed for what society caused.

Start here

What race is, and what it is not

Anthropologists and geneticists now agree that race is not a natural way to divide human biology. It is a social category invented to rank people, mostly to justify slavery and colonialism (AABA, 2019) (AAA, 1998). That does not make race meaningless: racism is real, and it changes bodies and lives.

Where human genetic differences are found

Any two people share about 99.9% of their DNA sequence (NHGRI, n.d.). Of the small part that varies, about 94% is found inside so-called racial groups and only about 6% between them (AAA, 1998). Two Black Americans can differ genetically more than a Black and a white American. Skin color is controlled by a handful of genes and says almost nothing about the rest of the body.

Race is real, as a social fact

Because society sorts people by race, race predicts where people live, how they are treated in school and the clinic, and what stress they carry. That is why race still appears in health statistics: it tracks exposure to racism, not a different biology (Williams et al., 2019) (Bailey et al., 2017). The American Medical Association adopted this position in 2020, calling race a social construct and racism a public health threat (AMA, 2020).

Interactive timeline

From "race science" to today's clinic

Click any event to see what happened, the myth it created or used, and where that myth still shows up. Filter by type or jump to an era.

    Game

    Myth or evidence?

    Each card is something people have said about race. Decide whether research supports it, then see where the idea came from and what it does today. Some are true, and the truth is usually about racism, not biology.

    Your score

    Then and now

    Myths built into medical tools

    For decades, calculators used to make medical decisions added or subtracted points for race, often steering care away from Black patients. A 2020 review listed 13 such tools in fields from kidney care to obstetrics (Vyas et al., 2020). Several have now been rewritten without race, and the new versions work just as well.

    ToolWhat it assumedWhat research showedStatus
    Outcomes today

    The gaps that the myths left behind

    These gaps are real, but they are not biological. They follow the history on this page: unequal care, unequal neighborhoods, mistrust earned by abuse, and the chronic stress of racism (Bailey et al., 2017) (Williams et al., 2019).

    Black AmericansWhite Americans
    Mental health

    Racism and African American mental health

    Medicine once called Black people’s desire for freedom a disease. Today the research points the other way: racism itself is a major cause of distress. Williams and Williams-Morris described three paths: institutional racism limits resources, discrimination acts as a stressor, and internalized stereotypes damage self-worth (Williams & Williams-Morris, 2000). Janeé Steele’s Racism and African American Mental Health builds a culturally adapted CBT approach on that foundation (Steele, 2025).

    Social psychology

    How a myth becomes behavior

    Social psychology studies how beliefs about groups shape what people notice, feel and do. The research below shows how old myths still work inside people today, often without their knowing.

    1 · Myth

    A false claim about a group is taught as fact, often by scientists or doctors.

    2 · Stereotype

    The claim becomes a shared belief about "what they are like."

    3 · Perception

    People see pain, age, threat or ability through that belief.

    4 · Decision

    Doctors, teachers and police act on what they perceive.

    5 · Outcome

    Unequal results seem to "prove" the myth, and the cycle repeats.

    The books

    Four books that frame this lesson

    Summaries are written by Doc Lobe in our own words. Read the books themselves for the full arguments.

    Going further

    A Critical Race Theory lens

    Reading medicine through CRT

    Critical Race Theory began in law, but its tenets, as summarized by Delgado and Stefancic (Delgado & Stefancic, 2023), explain much of this lesson. The dissertation behind Lesson 6 uses CRT as its foundation; here it is applied to medicine and psychology.

    What changes it

    Protections, repair and what you can do

    What has changed

      Discussion questions

      1. Which myth on this page have you heard said as fact? Where did you hear it?
      2. Why might a person from a community harmed by medical research distrust a doctor today? Is that distrust "irrational"?
      3. A clinical tool adjusts results by race. What questions should you ask before using it?
      4. How could a teacher's belief about a student's "toughness" or maturity change how that student is disciplined?
      5. Guthrie asked who gets to be the "subject" and who gets to be the "scientist." How does that apply to your field?
      6. Pick one CRT tenet. Use it to explain one outcome gap on this page.

      Connect the lessons

      Lesson 6 · Culture and identityCross's Nigrescence, the IROS and internalized racism. Lesson 6 · Weathering modelTurn on racism in the After birth model and watch biological age change. Lesson 5 · Stress across generationsHow the harms on this page can echo into later generations. Equity in EducationDiscipline gaps, teacher diversity and adultification in schools. Multicultural and ForensicCulture, bias and the justice system. Theorists · William E. Cross Jr.Black identity development. DSM-5-TR guideCultural formulation and diagnostic bias. Research Methods LabEthics, consent and IRBs, the protections born from these cases.
      Practice

      Games and flashcards

      📅 Put history in order

      Click the events from earliest to latest.

      ❓ Quick quiz

      Flashcards

      Learn more

      Videos, reading and sources

      ▶ Race-based medicine and the history of experimentation

      ▶ Social psychology of bias

      Research from the last ten years (48)

      1. Alsan, M., & Wanamaker, M. (2018). Tuskegee and the health of Black men. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 133(1), 407–455. https://doi.org/10.1093/qje/qjx029 free to read
      2. American Association of Biological Anthropologists. (2019). AABA statement on race and racism. https://bioanth.org/about/aaba-statement-on-race-racism/ free to read
      3. American Medical Association. (2020). New AMA policies recognize race as a social, not biological, construct. https://ama-assn.org/delivering-care/health-equity/how-3-major-policy-moves-cement-ama-s-commitment-health-equity free to read
      4. American Psychological Association. (2021). Apology to people of color for APA’s role in promoting, perpetuating, and failing to challenge racism, racial discrimination, and human hierarchy in U.S. https://www.apa.org/about/policy/racism-apology free to read
      5. Arias, E., Xu, J., & Tejada-Vera, B. (2026). United States life tables, 2024. National Vital Statistics Reports, 75(5). https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nvsr/nvsr75/nvsr75-05.pdf free to read
      6. Bailey, Z. D., Krieger, N., Agénor, M., Graves, J., Linos, N., & Bassett, M. T. (2017). Structural racism and health inequities in the USA: Evidence and interventions. The Lancet, 389(10077), 1453–1463. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(17)30569-X
      7. Bhakta, N. R., Bime, C., Kaminsky, D. A., McCormack, M. C., Thakur, N., Stanojevic, S., Baugh, A. D., Braun, L., Lovinsky-Desir, S., Adamson, R., Witonsky, J., Wise, R. A., Levy, S. D., Brown, R., Forno, E., Cohen, R. T., Johnson, M., Balmes, J., Mageto, Y., . . . Burney, P. (2023). Race and ethnicity in pulmonary function test interpretation: An official American Thoracic Society statement. American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, 207(8), 978–995. https://doi.org/10.1164/rccm.202302-0310ST free to read
      8. Bor, J., Venkataramani, A. S., Williams, D. R., & Tsai, A. C. (2018). Police killings and their spillover effects on the mental health of black Americans: A population-based, quasi-experimental study. The Lancet, 392(10144), 302–310. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(18)31130-9 free to read
      9. Bridge, J. A., Ruch, D. A., Sheftall, A. H., Hahm, H. C., O’Keefe, V. M., Fontanella, C. A., Brock, G., Campo, J. V., & Horowitz, L. M. (2023). Youth suicide during the first year of the COVID-19 pandemic. Pediatrics, 151(3), e2022058375. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2022-058375 free to read
      10. Butrovich, M. A., Reaves, A. C., Heyward, J., Moore, T. J., Alexander, G. C., Inker, L. A., & Nolin, T. D. (2024). Underrepresentation of Black individuals in pivotal trials for novel anticancer drugs: Potential consequence of using estimated creatinine clearance to assess kidney function? Contemporary Clinical Trials, 144, 107631. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cct.2024.107631
      11. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2024). The U.S. Public Health Service untreated syphilis study at Tuskegee: Timeline. https://www.cdc.gov/tuskegee/about/timeline.html free to read
      12. Connecticut Public / Associated Press. (2022, October 7). Philadelphia apologizes for experiments on Black inmates. https://www.ctpublic.org/2022-10-07/philadelphia-apologizes-for-experiments-on-black-inmates free to read
      13. Delgado, C., Baweja, M., Crews, D. C., Eneanya, N. D., Gadegbeku, C. A., Inker, L. A., Mendu, M. L., Miller, W. G., Moxey-Mims, M. M., Roberts, G. V., St. Peter, W. L., Warfield, C., & Powe, N. R. (2022). A unifying approach for GFR estimation: Recommendations of the NKF-ASN Task Force on Reassessing the Inclusion of Race in Diagnosing Kidney Disease. American Journal of Kidney Diseases, 79(2), 268–288.e1. https://doi.org/10.1053/j.ajkd.2021.08.003
      14. Delgado, R., & Stefancic, J. (2023). Critical race theory: An introduction (4th ed.). NYU Press. https://muse.jhu.edu/book/118635
      15. Dibinga, O. (2023). Lies about Black people: How to combat racist stereotypes and why it matters. Prometheus Books. https://www.american.edu/sis/research/highlights/20230719-dibinga-lies-about-black-people.cfm
      16. Ely, D. M., & Driscoll, A. K. (2026). Infant mortality in the United States, 2024: Data from the period linked birth/infant death file. National Vital Statistics Reports, 75(3). https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nvsr/nvsr75/nvsr75-03.pdf free to read
      17. Epstein, R., Blake, J. J., & González, T. (2017). Girlhood interrupted: The erasure of Black girls’ childhood. Georgetown Law Center on Poverty and Inequality. https://www.law.georgetown.edu/poverty-inequality-center/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2017/08/girlhood-interrupted.pdf free to read
      18. Forscher, P. S., Lai, C. K., Axt, J. R., Ebersole, C. R., Herman, M., Devine, P. G., & Nosek, B. A. (2019). A meta-analysis of procedures to change implicit measures. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 117(3), 522–559. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspa0000160 free to read
      19. Fortune. (2023, August 1). Family of Henrietta Lacks settles with Thermo Fisher over cloned cells. https://fortune.com/well/2023/08/01/family-of-henrietta-lacks-settles-with-thermo-fisher-cloned-cells free to read
      20. Greenwood, B. N., Hardeman, R. R., Huang, L., & Sojourner, A. (2020). Physician–patient racial concordance and disparities in birthing mortality for newborns. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 117(35), 21194–21200. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1913405117 free to read
      21. Grobman, W. A., Sandoval, G., Rice, M. M., Bailit, J. L., Chauhan, S. P., Costantine, M. M., Gyamfi-Bannerman, C., Metz, T. D., Parry, S., Rouse, D. J., Saade, G. R., Simhan, H. N., Thorp, J. M., Tita, A. T. N., Longo, M., & Landon, M. B. (2021). Prediction of vaginal birth after cesarean delivery in term gestations: A calculator without race and ethnicity. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 225(6), 664.e1–664.e7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajog.2021.05.021 free to read
      22. Hoffman, K. M., Trawalter, S., Axt, J. R., & Oliver, M. N. (2016). Racial bias in pain assessment and treatment recommendations, and false beliefs about biological differences between blacks and whites. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 113(16), 4296–4301. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1516047113 free to read
      23. Hoyert, D. L. (2026). Maternal mortality rates in the United States, 2024 (NCHS Health E-Stats No. 113). National Center for Health Statistics. https://doi.org/10.15620/cdc/174651 free to read
      24. Idris, M. Y., Fitzsimmons, W. E., & Pemu, P. (2024). Quantifying clinical trial diversity in pivotal registration trials of FDA novel drug approvals. Therapeutic Innovation & Regulatory Science, 58(1), 175–183. https://doi.org/10.1007/s43441-023-00583-5
      25. Inker, L. A., Eneanya, N. D., Coresh, J., Tighiouart, H., Wang, D., Sang, Y., Crews, D. C., Doria, A., Estrella, M. M., Froissart, M., Grams, M. E., Greene, T., Grubb, A., Gudnason, V., Gutiérrez, O. M., Kalil, R., Karger, A. B., Mauer, M., Navis, G., . . . Levey, A. S. (2021). New creatinine- and cystatin C–based equations to estimate GFR without race. New England Journal of Medicine, 385(19), 1737–1749. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa2102953 free to read
      26. Kirkinis, K., Pieterse, A. L., Martin, C., Agiliga, A., & Brownell, A. (2021). Racism, racial discrimination, and trauma: A systematic review of the social science literature. Ethnicity & Health, 26(3), 392–412. https://doi.org/10.1080/13557858.2018.1514453
      27. Lee, P., Le Saux, M., Siegel, R., Goyal, M., Chen, C., Ma, Y., & Meltzer, A. C. (2019). Racial and ethnic disparities in the management of acute pain in US emergency departments: Meta-analysis and systematic review. American Journal of Emergency Medicine, 37(9), 1770–1777. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajem.2019.06.014
      28. Lolic, M., Araojo, R., Okeke, M., & Woodcock, J. (2021). Racial and ethnic representation in US clinical trials of new drugs and biologics, 2015–2019. JAMA, 326(21), 2201–2203. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2021.16680 free to read
      29. Louie, P., Upenieks, L., Erving, C. L., & Thomas Tobin, C. S. (2022). Do racial differences in coping resources explain the Black–White paradox in mental health? A test of multiple mechanisms. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 63(1), 55–70. https://doi.org/10.1177/00221465211041031 free to read
      30. National Human Genome Research Institute. (n.d.). Human Genome Project fact sheet. https://www.genome.gov/about-genomics/educational-resources/fact-sheets/human-genome-project free to read
      31. Obermeyer, Z., Powers, B., Vogeli, C., & Mullainathan, S. (2019). Dissecting racial bias in an algorithm used to manage the health of populations. Science, 366(6464), 447–453. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aax2342
      32. Office of the Governor of California. (2021, December 31). California launches program to compensate survivors of state-sponsored sterilization. https://www.gov.ca.gov/2021/12/31/california-launches-program-to-compensate-survivors-of-state-sponsored-sterilization/ free to read
      33. Olbert, C. M., Nagendra, A., & Buck, B. (2018). Meta-analysis of Black vs. White racial disparity in schizophrenia diagnosis in the United States: Do structured assessments attenuate racial disparities? Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 127(1), 104–115. https://doi.org/10.1037/abn0000309
      34. Owens, D. C., & Fett, S. M. (2019). Black maternal and infant health: Historical legacies of slavery. American Journal of Public Health, 109(10), 1342–1345. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2019.305243 free to read
      35. Pamplin, J. R., & Bates, L. M. (2021). Evaluating hypothesized explanations for the Black–white depression paradox: A critical review of the extant evidence. Social Science & Medicine, 281, 114085. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2021.114085 free to read
      36. Perszyk, D. R., Lei, R. F., Bodenhausen, G. V., Richeson, J. A., & Waxman, S. R. (2019). Bias at the intersection of race and gender: Evidence from preschool-aged children. Developmental Science, 22(3), e12788. https://doi.org/10.1111/desc.12788
      37. Saini, A. (2019). Superior: The return of race science. Beacon Press.
      38. Sheftall, A. H., Vakil, F., Ruch, D. A., Boyd, R. C., Lindsey, M. A., & Bridge, J. A. (2022). Black youth suicide: Investigation of current trends and precipitating circumstances. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 61(5), 662–675. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2021.08.021 free to read
      39. Shewach, O. R., Sackett, P. R., & Quint, S. (2019). Stereotype threat effects in settings with features likely versus unlikely in operational test settings: A meta-analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology, 104(12), 1514–1534. https://doi.org/10.1037/apl0000420
      40. Sjoding, M. W., Dickson, R. P., Iwashyna, T. J., Gay, S. E., & Valley, T. S. (2020). Racial bias in pulse oximetry measurement. New England Journal of Medicine, 383(25), 2477–2478. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMc2029240 free to read
      41. Steele, J. M. (2025). Racism and African American mental health: Using cognitive behavior therapy to empower healing. Routledge. https://www.routledge.com/Racism-and-African-American-Mental-Health-Using-Cognitive-Behavior-Therapy-to-Empower-Healing/Steele/p/book/9781032050492
      42. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. (2025). Mental health treatment among people who had a mental health condition in the past year (NSDUH Population Statistics Reports, Vol. 1, No. 7). https://www.samhsa.gov/data/sites/default/files/reports/rpt56771/2024-nsduh-psr7-mhtx-adult-adol.pdf free to read
      43. Sullivan, J., Wilton, L., & Apfelbaum, E. P. (2021). Adults delay conversations about race because they underestimate children’s processing of race. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 150(2), 395–400. https://doi.org/10.1037/xge0000851
      44. The Daily Pennsylvanian. (2023). Penn physicians’ apology for Kligman prison experiments. https://www.thedp.com/article/2023/01/penn-physicians-apology-kligman-prison-experiments free to read
      45. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. (2025). Pulse oximeters for medical purposes—Non-clinical and clinical performance testing, labeling, and premarket submission recommendations [Draft guidance]. https://www.fda.gov/regulatory-information/search-fda-guidance-documents/pulse-oximeters-medical-purposes-non-clinical-and-clinical-performance-testing-labeling-and free to read
      46. Vyas, D. A., Eisenstein, L. G., & Jones, D. S. (2020). Hidden in plain sight—Reconsidering the use of race correction in clinical algorithms. New England Journal of Medicine, 383(9), 874–882. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMms2004740 free to read
      47. Williams, D. R., Lawrence, J. A., & Davis, B. A. (2019). Racism and health: Evidence and needed research. Annual Review of Public Health, 40, 105–125. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-publhealth-040218-043750 free to read
      48. WJCT / NPR. (2018, April 17). "Father of gynecology," who experimented on slaves, no longer on pedestal in NYC. https://news.wjct.org/2018-04-17/father-of-gynecology-who-experimented-on-slaves-no-longer-on-pedestal-in-nyc free to read

      Historical, foundational and book sources

      Older works are kept because they are the historical record or the books this lesson reviews.

      1. American Anthropological Association. (1998). AAA statement on race. https://americananthro.org/?p=1816 free to read
      2. American Anthropological Association. (n.d.). Race: Are we so different? History of the idea of race: Science. https://understandingrace.org/history/science/early-classification-of-nature-1680-1800/ free to read
      3. Associated Press. (1998, April 18). Fen tests on minority boys come under fire. Deseret News. https://www.deseret.com/1998/4/18/19375355/fen-tests-on-minority-boys-come-under-fire free to read
      4. Association of Black Psychologists. (n.d.). About ABPsi. https://abpsi.org/about-abpsi/ free to read
      5. California State Auditor. (2014). Sterilization of female inmates: Some inmates were sterilized unlawfully (Report 2013-120). https://information.auditor.ca.gov/reports/summary/2013-120 free to read
      6. Correll, J., Park, B., Judd, C. M., & Wittenbrink, B. (2002). The police officer’s dilemma: Using ethnicity to disambiguate potentially threatening individuals. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83(6), 1314–1329. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.83.6.1314
      7. Embryo Project Encyclopedia, Arizona State University. (n.d.). Buck v. Bell (1927). https://embryo.asu.edu/pages/buck-v-bell-1927 free to read
      8. Embryo Project Encyclopedia, Arizona State University. (n.d.). Havasupai Tribe v. Arizona Board of Regents. https://embryo.asu.edu/pages/havasupai-tribe-v-arizona-board-regents-2008 free to read
      9. Goff, P. A., Jackson, M. C., Di Leone, B. A. L., Culotta, C. M., & DiTomasso, N. A. (2014). The essence of innocence: Consequences of dehumanizing Black children. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 106(4), 526–545. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0035663 free to read
      10. Gould, S. J. (1996). The mismeasure of man (Rev. ed.). W. W. Norton.
      11. Gravlee, C. C., Bernard, H. R., & Leonard, W. R. (2003). Heredity, environment, and cranial form: A reanalysis of Boas’s immigrant data. American Anthropologist, 105(1), 125–138. https://doi.org/10.1525/aa.2003.105.1.125
      12. Guthrie, R. V. (1998). Even the rat was white: A historical view of psychology (2nd ed.). Allyn and Bacon.
      13. Harvard Civil Rights–Civil Liberties Law Review. (n.d.). North Carolina’s response to its history of forced sterilizations. https://journals.law.harvard.edu/crcl/north-carolinas-response-to-its-history-of-forced-sterilizations free to read
      14. Lewis, J. E., DeGusta, D., Meyer, M. R., Monge, J. M., Mann, A. E., & Holloway, R. L. (2011). The mismeasures of science: Stephen Jay Gould versus Samuel George Morton on skulls and bias. PLoS Biology, 9(6), e1001071. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.1001071 free to read
      15. Library of Congress. (n.d.). Brown v. Board at fifty: "With an even hand". https://loc.gov/exhibits/brown/brown-brown.html free to read
      16. Mekawi, Y., & Bresin, K. (2015). Is the evidence from racial bias shooting task studies a smoking gun? Results from a meta-analysis. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 61, 120–130. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2015.08.002
      17. Metzl, J. M. (2009). The protest psychosis: How schizophrenia became a Black disease. Beacon Press.
      18. National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research. (1979). The Belmont report. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. https://www.hhs.gov/ohrp/regulations-and-policy/belmont-report/read-the-belmont-report/index.html free to read
      19. National Library of Medicine. (n.d.). Native Voices timeline: 1976, government admits unauthorized sterilization of Indian women. https://www.nlm.nih.gov/nativevoices/timeline/543.html free to read
      20. NPR. (2010, October 1). U.S. apologizes for medical research that infected Guatemalans with syphilis. https://www.npr.org/blogs/health/2010/10/01/130266301/u-s-apologizes-for-medical-research-that-infected-guatemalans-with-syphilis free to read
      21. Paradies, Y., Ben, J., Denson, N., Elias, A., Priest, N., Pieterse, A., Gupta, A., Kelaher, M., & Gee, G. (2015). Racism as a determinant of health: A systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS ONE, 10(9), e0138511. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0138511 free to read
      22. PBS American Experience. (n.d.). Fannie Lou Hamer. https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/freedomsummer-hamer/ free to read
      23. PBS American Experience. (n.d.). The Puerto Rico pill trials. https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/pill-puerto-rico-pill-trials free to read
      24. PBS. (n.d.). Africans in America: "Diseases and peculiarities of the Negro race," by Dr. Samuel A. Cartwright (Original work published 1851). https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aia/part4/4h3106t.html free to read
      25. PBS. (n.d.). Africans in America: Thomas Jefferson, Notes on the State of Virginia (Original work published 1785). https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aia/part3/3h490t.html free to read
      26. Roberts, D. (2011). Fatal invention: How science, politics, and big business re-create race in the twenty-first century. The New Press. https://thenewpress.org/books/fatal-invention/
      27. Southern Poverty Law Center. (n.d.). Relf v. Weinberger. https://www.splcenter.org/seeking-justice/case-docket/relf-v-weinberger free to read
      28. Spriggs, M. (2003). Grimes v. Kennedy Krieger Institute: Nontherapeutic research with children. AMA Journal of Ethics, 5(11). https://journalofethics.ama-assn.org/article/grimes-v-kennedy-krieger-institute-nontherapeutic-research-children/2003-11 free to read
      29. Steele, C. M., & Aronson, J. (1995). Stereotype threat and the intellectual test performance of African Americans. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69(5), 797–811. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.69.5.797
      30. UNESCO. (1950). The race question. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNESCO_statements_on_race free to read
      31. Washington, H. A. (2006). Medical apartheid: The dark history of medical experimentation on Black Americans from colonial times to the present. Doubleday.
      32. Waytz, A., Hoffman, K. M., & Trawalter, S. (2015). A superhumanization bias in Whites’ perceptions of Blacks. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 6(3), 352–359. https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550614553642
      33. Weisberg, M. (2014). Remeasuring man. Evolution & Development, 16(3), 166–178. https://doi.org/10.1111/ede.12077
      34. Williams, D. R., & Williams-Morris, R. (2000). Racism and mental health: The African American experience. Ethnicity & Health, 5(3–4), 243–268. https://doi.org/10.1080/713667453
      35. Wolff, M. J. (2006). The myth of the actuary: Life insurance and Frederick L. Hoffman’s Race Traits and Tendencies of the American Negro. Public Health Reports, 121(1), 84–91. https://doi.org/10.1177/003335490612100115 free to read